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For example, the sentence “He is a black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe the association of the black sheep with that person. The black sheep is an unusual animal which typically stays away from the herd, and the person we are describing shares similar characteristics. Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different from a simile, i.e. we do not use “like”or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one. Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used only in songs or poems which has nothing to do with our everyday life. But, in fact, all of us speak and write and think in metaphors every day. They can’t be avoided: the metaphors are built right into our language.
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1. Andrew Goatly “The Language of Metaphors: Literal Metaphorical,” Routledge, London and New York, 1998.
2. Barbara Dancygier and Eve Sweetser “Figurative Language,” Cambridge University Press, New York, 2014.
3. Bronwen Martin and Felizitas Ringham “Dictionary of Semiotics,” Cassell, London and New York, 2000.
4. Charles Dickens “Oliver Twist,” Webster’s Thesaurus Edition,” San Diego, ICON Classics, 2005.
5. Christina Alm-Arvius “Figures of Speech,” Studentlitteratur, Lund, 2003.
6. David Crystal “A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics,” Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 2008.
7. Elyse Sommer and Dorrie Weiss “Metaphor Dictionary,” Visible Ink Press, New York, 1995.
8. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson “Metaphors We Live by,” Chicago Press, London, 2003.
9. Gillian Lazar “Meanings and Metaphors,” Cambridge University Press, New York, 2003.
10. Hadumod Bussmann “A Dictionary of Language and Linguistics,” Routledge, London and New York, 2006.